Maratha Warfare Crisis & The Road to Kumbher (1754)

Marathi History Book Reading Session Summary

Chapter Continues: "Marathas Win Wars, Lose Friends"

The Impossible Position (Recap)

The Maratha dilemma:

• Mughal Emperor at Delhi = appendage they could do without
• On one hand: Sworn to protect him (Ahadnama contract)
• On the other hand: Mughal court free to deal and grant awards as it deemed fit
• Result: Marathas left to resolve the consequences

The competition: Regional powers (Rohillas/Najib Khan, Awadh, Abdali, Nizam, Siddhi of Janjira, English, Portuguese) were all:

• Self-contained
• Compact
• Reacted quickly
• Focused efficiently
• ⌠Way more efficient than the Marathas

The Old Ways vs. New Technology

The Peshwa's Court: Yes-Men Problem

The traditional governance:

• Peshwa's governance followed age-old traditions
• Courtiers focused on keeping the Peshwa happy
• ⌠Rather than telling him the truth

The danger:

• Not getting honest feedback
• Echo chamber effect
• Missing critical information

The Technology Gap: A Fatal Weakness

New European Weapons Arriving

What was happening:

• New weapons and techniques from Europeans being adopted
• Peshwa's army getting access to new technology
• BUT this created new dangers and risks

Why This Was Critical

The problem:

• Maratha army was NOT used to new techniques of warfare
• Still trained in old-style battle techniques and strategies
• Traditional Maratha warfare = guerrilla tactics, surprise attacks
• European warfare = disciplined regiments, frontal battles, cannon warfare

Quote from source: "This is a very, very important point."

The Cannon Disaster at Panipat (Foreshadowing)

What Sadashiv Rao Adopted

The plan:

• Adopted long-range cannons (French technology and training)
• These could fire 1.5 to 2 kilometers
• Seemed like the perfect solution for flat-land battles

The Maratha Army Wasn't Ready

The cultural problem:

• Maratha army more used to old-style contact warfare
• ⌠Not comfortable with this new cannon-centric strategy
• Traditional preference: surgical strikes, hit-and-run

This inexperience with cannon warfare = one of the reasons they lost at Panipat.

The Battle of Panipat: How the Cannons Failed

The Setup

Initial situation:

• Cannon force positioned out in front
• Battle begins with cannons firing
• Long-range cannons (1.5-2 km range)
• Incredibly effective - scorching the enemy
• Enemy soldiers getting burnt, starting to flee
• Cannons were winning the battle!

The Ego Problem

What the front Maratha troops thought:

• "If the cannons win the war, the cannon force gets ALL the credit"
• "What will become of us?"
• "Peshwas will have no use for us!"

The Fatal Decision

What they did:

• Front Maratha troops were told to wait
• Let cannons do their job of softening enemy lines
• This was crucial to the strategy

But after 4-5 hours:

• Front troops couldn't wait anymore
• They launched their own attack on enemy lines
• Charged ahead without coordination

The consequence:

• Once Maratha troops surged ahead → cannons had to stop firing
• Risk of hitting their own troops
• "All hell breaks loose"

Why This Happened

Root cause:

• Marathas had never seen cannon force being so effective
• Didn't understand the discipline it demanded from the rest of the army
• Not used to this style of battle
• Lacked maturity with the new technology

The lesson: Having money to buy cannons ≠ Having expertise to use them properly

The Philosophical Divide in Maratha Army

The Shivaji Doctrine

What Shivaji taught:

• Surgical strike when enemy least expects you
• Hit and vanish within 2-3 hours
• Maximum destruction, minimum exposure
• Never fight frontal battles

The Old Guard Resistance

Certain contingents simply did not like frontal warfare:

• "This is totally wrong"
• "We should NOT be fighting battles like this"
• "We should fall upon the enemy when they least expect"
• "Then vanish after making destruction in enemy camp"

There were fundamental disagreements within the army.

Sadashiv Rao Bhau's Conviction

Why He Insisted on Frontal Warfare

His logic:

• In northern plains, there is no mountain
• Can't use guerrilla tactics (no terrain advantage)
• Fighting a very strong enemy (Abdali)
• This is the only way to fight in the north

The Problem: Couldn't Convince Everyone

Major commanders who disagreed:

• Holkar believed in old-fashioned warfare
• Never believed in frontal attacks
• "Just couldn't take it"
• Eventually left early with his troops

Note: Why Holkar left is important and will be explained more later, but the tactical disagreement was a major factor.

The European vs. Maratha Fighting Styles

European Methods

What Europeans brought:

• Disciplined troops
• Regiments behaving in coordinated fashion
• Collective action as a group
• Concurrent, synchronized movements

Maratha Strengths & Weaknesses

What Marathas were good at:

• Individual bravery
• Personal valor and skill

What Marathas struggled with:

• Collective action as an army
• Working in disciplined fashion as a group
• Coordinated large-scale operations
• ⌠Infighting for credit

The Transition Period

The situation circa 1754:

• Unsettling period of change
• Old methods being challenged
• Transition had just started
• Later they got better at it
• But timing was wrong - still learning

The European Enclaves: Technology Creates Power

Why Europeans Could Establish Settlements

The reason:

• Their weapons and techniques were different from age-old Indian methods
• Superior technology = leverage to carve out territory
• They didn't modernize unlike their contemporaries
• This gave Europeans footholds (French, British, Portuguese)

The Europeans developed their own enclaves within India because of this technological advantage.

Political Dynamics: Why Sadashiv Rao Wasn't Sent North Earlier

The Representation Problem

What the Marathas needed:

• Very able courtier representative in Mughal court in Delhi
• Someone present to represent Maratha interests
• Antaji Mankeshwar was one such person

Nana Saheb's Insecurity

The fear:

• If Sadashiv Rao was appointed as regent in the north
• He could become a threat to the Peshwa position itself

Why this was concerning:

1. Sadashiv Rao could challenge Nana Saheb's position in Pune

   • By winning more battles
   • Making himself look good
   • Taking credit for good actions

2. Much more wealth and power in the north

   • Mughals were weak but still had lots of wealth
   • He could accumulate massive resources
   • Potential to take over Mughal Empire in Delhi
   • Displace the emperor himself
   • "Free Mughal Empire for himself"

3. Succession concerns

   • Nana Saheb wanted to pass throne to his son: Vishwas Rao
   • If Sadashiv Rao (cousin) got all the credit in north
   • Would undermine Vishwas Rao's case to be next Peshwa

The strategy:

• Keep Sadashiv Rao busy with Karnataka campaign (in the south)
• Could have been relieved and sent north
• But Nana Saheb wanted him under leash
• Trusted him (family) but couldn't let him shine too brightly

Raghunath Rao: The Young Prodigy

Early Success

At barely 18 years old:

• Won over Ahmedabad from the Mughals (Gujarat)
• Very impressive achievement

Who is he:

• Younger brother of Nana Saheb Peshwa (NOT brother of Vishwas Rao)
• Uncle to Vishwas Rao
• Direct brother to the Peshwa
• Sadashiv Rao Bhau was his cousin

Why Raghunath Rao Was Sent North

The Reasoning

Why these three were chosen:

• Jayapa Shinde - senior commander
• Malhar Rao Holkar - senior commander
• Raghunath Rao Peshwa - younger brother of Peshwa

Multiple Reasons for Raghunath Rao

1. Sovereign questions: Could handle matters requiring Peshwa-level authority

2. Fighter credentials: Was a warrior, not just administrator

3. Royal family aura: People trusted him when he said something (family connection)

4. Mediation needed: Shinde and Holkar didn't get along at all

   • Needed someone who could lead both
   • They wouldn't listen to each other
   • Raghunath Rao = mediator between rivals

The Mission: Take Agra and Ajmer

The Situation When They Arrived

By the time the decision was made and they traveled north:

• Safdar Jang already defeated
• Back in Awadh
• ⌠No need to fight him

New mission (per the Ahadnama):

• Take control of two provinces:
  1. Agra
  2. Ajmer

The Jat Problem in Agra

Not a Simple Affair

The complication:

• Agra district/province = stronghold of Jat people
• Jats = Hindus, warrior caste
• Giving trouble since Aurangzeb's time
• Not easy opponents

Why Jats Would Resist

The Jat perspective:

• ⌠"Marathas want to take control of Agra?"
• ⌠"We're originally from here"
• ⌠"Not going to like it"
• One thing for emperor to give it away
• Another for Marathas to just take it
• Would be treated as outsiders, usurper force

The reality: Jats were already competitors to Mughals. They were no slouch. Not giving Marathas an easy time.

Surajmal Jat: The Shrewd King

Who He Is

Surajmal Jat:

• King in Agra (or nearby Agra)
• Very shrewd personality
• Built good forts south of Delhi

His fortifications:

• Not perfectly flat land
• Some hills (not mountains like Sahyadri)
• Not mountainous region
• But enough elevation to build fortifications
• Not purely Bhui Kot - kind of in between

His Alliance Choice

Surajmal's fatal decision:

• Had sided with Safdar Jang during the conflict
• Emperor had forgiven him
• But Imad-ul-Mulk was still upset
• Wanted revenge

Imad-ul-Mulk's Play

As Mir Bakshi (commander-in-chief):

• Asked for Maratha help
• "Kick out the Jats"
• "Kick out Surajmal Jat"

The Siege Begins

January 20, 1754

The arrival:

• Raghunath Rao reached Kumbher Fort
• This is Surajmal Jat's stronghold
• Near Agra
• Battle is about to unfold with the Jats

The stage is set for the tragedy that will unfold at Kumbher Fort...

Key Players

Timeline

Geographic Context

Key locations:

• Pune - Peshwa's capital (south)
• Karnataka - Where Sadashiv Rao Bhau kept busy
• Ahmedabad - Gujarat, won by Raghunath Rao
• Delhi - Mughal capital
• Agra - Jat stronghold, target territory
• Ajmer - Target territory
• Kumbher Fort - Surajmal Jat's stronghold (near Agra)

Critical Insights

The Technology Trap

The paradox:

• Got the best technology (French cannons)
• But lacked the culture to use it properly
• Maratha warriors = individual heroes
• European warfare = collective discipline
• Cultural mismatch = disaster waiting to happen

The Ego Problem

At Panipat:

• Individual units wanted credit
• Couldn't stand cannons getting the glory
• Abandoned strategy for personal recognition
• Discipline breakdown = defeat
• Having the tech ≠ being able to use it

The Philosophical Split

Old guard vs. new tactics:

• Shivaji doctrine deeply ingrained
• Frontal warfare felt wrong to many commanders
• Even senior leaders (Holkar) couldn't accept it
• Army was divided on fundamental strategy
• United force fighting with divided philosophy = weakness

The Political Calculation

Why Sadashiv Rao kept south:

• Nana Saheb's insecurity
• Fear of being overshadowed
• Succession concerns for his son
• Better to keep powerful cousin on short leash
• But this meant less experienced commander went north initially

The Jat Wild Card

Surajmal Jat:

• Shrewd, experienced
• Had good fortifications
• Warrior community backing him
• Not to be underestimated
• His decision to side with Safdar Jang = sealed his fate

The Marathas had the best cannons money could buy, but they were still fighting with the heart of guerrilla warriors. They had the technology of the future but the mindset of the past. Individual glory mattered more than collective victory. And at Kumbher Fort, this clash of old and new was about to write a tragedy that would echo all the way to Panipat.